Essay on The Cruelty of Slavery and Opression in America

A Call for Action The United States of America is known for its claims of democracy, equality, and freedom for all of it’s citizens. These claims are the foundation of America’s independence and essentially its entire history. But â€Å"claims† are simply all they were in history. While many achieved equal democracy and freedom, the African-American population of the US was exempt from these â€Å"inalienable rights† and heavily oppressed by society. The cruelty of slavery and oppression as a whole reached its peak in the 19th century bringing upon the abolitionist movement, which eventually aided in the historic removal of slavery and the continued fight for equal right of citizenship for African-Americans. Of the many abolitionists who fought for†¦show more content†¦In â€Å"An Appeal to the Women of the Nominally Free States†, Angelina Grimke immediately addresses all women as her â€Å"Beloved Sisters†, white or black. She establishes her audienc e right away and attempts to connect them through the powerful use of the sisterhood mentality. She begins to remind all women of their important duties in the world and then questions why women are stripped of political rights and duties solely because they are women, even though they are a crucial part of society. She goes on to explain slavery as a brutish crime â€Å"by which man is robbed of his inalienable right to liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, the diadem of glory, and honor, with which he was crowned, and that sceptre of dominion which was placed in his hand when he was ushered upon the theater of creation.† (Grimke). Grimke uses this vivid explanation of slavery to connect the oppression of African-Americans to the oppression of women and how women cannot forget that it is their duty to help their fellow oppressed citizens, regardless of their skin color. She says that it is not only their moral duty but also their political duty to act as members of â€Å"T he Great Human Family†. She then begins to specifically describe how slave women areShow MoreRelated Social inequality in 1820s Essay1385 Words   |  6 PagesSocial inequality in 1820s Social equality has been a goal of America since its very beginning. However, it was only an intention to be socially equal, but not a goal. Social equality or the fact that all men were created equal only applied to the white man. There was no intention in meaning that the blacks and Indians or even the women were equal. In the eyes of the delegates, and the common white majority, blacks, indians, and women were not an issue. To them, it was apparent that blacks were

Case Study on Why Apple Inc Was Successful in Emerging in...

International Business Case Study I decided to do my international business case study on Apple and Canada. I chose Apple because they are phenomenal in the global business market and who better to look at then the company that pretty much wrote the book on emerging into foreign markets. I chose Canada because it was a country that is right next to America but completely is completely different. How does Apple, a technology company, not operate wrong and fail miserably in the Canadian market? I will explain how I believe they were able to be successful and still prosper to this day. Apple was founded on April first, nineteen seventy six and incorporated January first, nineteen seventy seven. It was founded by Ronald Wayne, Steve†¦show more content†¦Unemployment currently sits at a seven point two percent as of March two thousand thirteen. This is a slight increase recently but has gone down from about eight point seven percent back in two thousand nine, the labor force has also increased by roughly one million people since the middle of two thousand nine. There has been a big boom for Canada since the American financial crisis which definitely affected the livelihood of Canadian citizens. Canada is unique because it is officially a bilingual country. This is an important factor when considering doing business in Canada. Canada has a constitutional monarchy which also has three branches of parliamentary (Legislative, Executive, and Judicial). The head of state is Queen Elizabeth the second. Canada is one of the top ten trading countries in the world; they are a very globalized country. They have a varied culture in Canada a major factor in this may be because it has the highest immigrations rate per capita in the entire world. The country itself prides itself on the multiculturalism that it promotes as a society and as a government. They come from British and French ancestry but also have a big influence from the Canadian people that instantly make C anada a very diverse market. Canada also ranks eleventh highest in human development as of March two thousand thirteen according to a Human Development Index study conducted by the United Nations Development Program. Canada ranks in the top ten of countries in manyShow MoreRelatedAn Evaluation of an on-Farm Food Safety Program for Ontario Greenhouse Vegetable Producers; a Global Blueprint for Fruit and Vegetable Producers51659 Words   |  207 PagesAn evaluation of an on-farm food safety program for Ontario greenhouse vegetable producers; a global blueprint for fruit and vegetable producers A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Graduate Studies Of The University of Guelph by Benjamin J. Chapman In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science February, 2005 ( Benjamin Chapman, 2005 Abstract An evaluation of an on-farm food safety program for Ontario greenhouse vegetable producers; a globalRead MoreStrategic Management20602 Words   |  83 Pagesthe super jumbo category with Airbus’s A-380 versus Boeing’s 787 . Apparently in 1992, Boeing and Airbus’s parent EADS agreed to a joint study on prospects for a super jumbo aircraft. The impetus for the study was the growing trafï ¬ c in China and India. However, Airbus and Boeing reached different conclusions concerning the market trends, and the joint effort was disbanded. Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner design focused on long-range efï ¬ cient ï ¬â€šight, capable of transporting 250 passengers, whereas Airbus’sRead MoreCase Study on Ebay18810 Words   |  76 PagesQuestion Paper Integrated Case Studies - I (MB3J1): January 2009 Case Studyâˆâ€" (100 Marks) †¢ This section consists of questions with serial number 1 - 5. †¢ Answer all questions. †¢ Marks are indicated against each question. Read the case carefully and answer the following questions: 1.Till 2005, eBay EachNet was the leader in the Chinese e-commerce market, controlling more than half of it. But eBay EachNet soon lost its market leadership position to Taobao.com (Taobao). In this context, analyze theRead MoreBest Buy Marketing Paper6456 Words   |  26 PagesBest Buy Inc. Best Buy Inc. has been performing business and providing customers with products and services in the United States for over forty-three years. 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The main products of the company comprises of different soft drinks brand includes pepsi,pepsi light ,pepsi max,7up,mountain dew,etc..The company consists of: Frito-Lay Company, the largestRead MoreRetailing Characteristics of Fast Food Stores and Their Impact on Customer Sales and Satisfaction29639 Words   |  119 Pagessatisfaction† By:- Rajul Bhardwaj Lecturer, Faculty of Management Studies, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar(Uttarakhand), India Table Of Contents:- ï  ¶ Chap-1 Introduction 1.1 Global Retailing Industry..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.2 The Far East Experience..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.3 The Changing Food Retailing sector in Asia.. 1.4 Recognition of a Problem†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.5 Objectives of the study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ï  ¶ Chap-2 Literature Review 2.1 Passage to India†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MoreMarketing and E-commerce Business65852 Words   |  264 PagesListing of Chapter Opening Cases, Insight Cases, E-commerce in Action Cases, and Case Studies CHAPTER 1 THE REVOLUTION IS JUST BEGINNING Opening Case: Pinterest: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words Insight on Technology: Will Apps Make the Web Irrelevant? Insight on Business: Start-Up Boot Camp Insight on Society: Facebook and the Age of Privacy Case Study: The Pirate Bay: Searching for a Safe Haven CHAPTER 2 E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS AND CONCEPTS Opening Case: Twitter’s Business Model Read MoreThe Walt Disney Company Report15335 Words   |  62 Pagesthat make it clear why Disney is the greatest story teller present in today’s time. Company Background Disney is a world renowned company, all known as â€Å"The Walt Disney Company†, named by its founder, Walt Disney. In 1923, Walter Elias Disney, moved to Los Angeles, founding the Disney with his three-year-old big brother Roy Disney. Now, the large multinational companies headquartered in the United State Burbank. At the beginning of the Disney, Walt Disney was a co-founder ofRead MoreInnovators Dna84615 Words   |  339 Pages(Continued from front flap) is the Horace Beesley Professor of Strategy at the Marriott School, Brigham Young University. 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Paul Fussell Thank God For The Atom Bomb Essay Example For Students

Paul Fussell Thank God For The Atom Bomb Essay At the end of WWII the americans droped the atom bomb on Hiroshima Aug 6 1945 and Nagasaki Aug 9 1945 two Japanease cities. This was a result of japans early attempts to make an empire in south-east asia. Japan had motives for making an empire in south-east asia. one was its growing population and it needed more space to expand, also Japan had little to none raw materials and they had to import them from other countries. After WWI Japan was disappointed because they fought along side the allied and at the end of the war Japan did not get what it expected also there militaristic government was persuaded by the generals to take the land it didnt resive after WWI, plus a little extra. During the 1930s and early 40s Japan set out to make an empire. In 1931 Japan Enginered an attack on Manchuria so it didnt look like they were invading it for no reason. The Japanease government said that Chinese bandits had tryed to blow up the Japanease owned railway there, the japanease used this excuse to take control of the whole of Manchuria. Japan also Enginered an attack on Easten China in 1937, they said that the Chinease shot at them across the Marco Polo Bridge, Japan used this excuse to start a full scale invasion of China. In 1941 Japan went on to invade and conquer Indo-ChinaVietnam. Japan called the area the took over The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere which shows that Japan thought that it was mighty and powerful. The initial international response for the USA and League Of Nations was they didnt want more fighting and more loss of life, but due to Japans sucsses in asia the USA and UK were starting to get scaired and in 1940 they made an economic sanction and planed to starve out Japan by not sending any raw materials. The Japanease planed an attack on Pearl Harbor an American Base in Hawaii befor they were starved out. At 8am on Sunday 7 December the Japanease pilots bombed and sunk 8 battleships, destroyed 350 planes and killed 2400 Americans. This attack brought America into the war and the bombed fleet was rebuilt. But straight after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan attacked the islands of Sinapore, Malasya and the Dutch East Indies many other islands were also captured along with 80000 British troops, which was the worst British defeat in the whole war. After the Japanease attacks on the islands in south-east asia the allied fought back but is was slow due to there being many small island under Japanease control. They had to fight Sea Battles in the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. During thease two battles the USA navy sank six Japanease aircraft carriers. The allied also had to do Island Hopping, this was the American plan on how to take the island back that were in the Pacific. The plan was to capture an important island, build an airfield on it and move on to the next with airsupport. America firt took over the island of Guadalcanal in August 1942 and then during 1943/44 America took back the Pacific island by island. The allied ran into trubble while taking over the islands because most of them were coverd in dence jungle, this became known as Jungle Warfare plus the attitude of the Japanease caused a tremendus loss of life for both sides because the Japanease would never surrender or give up, they would just fight till the end. .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 , .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .postImageUrl , .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 , .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:hover , .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:visited , .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:active { border:0!important; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:active , .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380 .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uabeeed57da258ec397e54ebd368ed380:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Philosophy - Life's Greatest Questions EssayThe USAF gained the skies over Japan and in 1944 started to bomb Japanease cities,in March 1945 the allies droped incendiary bombs which killed 80000 Japanease people in tokyo. Also the US navy blockeaded the Japanease ports to starve the Japanease people. In July 1945 in the Potsdam Conference the americans tolded the allies they had and were ready to use the atom bomb and on 26 Julythe allies issued the Potsdam Declaration, which stated that if Japan didnt surrender the allies would be forced to use a weapon of mass destruction, but Japan refused to surrender. On the 6 August 1945 the American bomber Enola Gay flew over the Japanease city of Hiroshima and droped the atom bomb Little Boy which killed and destroyed the whole city and the few how survived died a few days later due to radiation sickness. Three days later ,9 August 1945, the Americans droped another atom bomb Fat Man on the Japanease city of Nagasaki. On the 14 August 1945 the Japanease government surrendered and most of the generals commited suicide. The allies governed Japan untill 1952.

Steroids4 Essay Example For Students

Steroids4 Essay Anabolic steroids are powerful muscle-building and performance-enhancing compounds. They are many times used as the secret-weapon behind many world-class athletes, their performance, and bodybuilding. Steroids increase the amount of muscle one can build. They are banned by almost every athletic organization and are illegal, therefore leading to arrests and jail time if one is caught with them. They also have terrible side effects that can even be deadly. Anabolic steroids are used to gain the physical advantage over opponents. Steroids are forms of hormones. These hormones control various things. Animals have different steroids in their bodies, some for self-defense, some to help heal injuries, and some steroids even assist with development. Testosterone is the male hormone reproduced to make anabolic steroids. This reproduced testosterone is known to increase strength, speed, endurance, muscle mass, and aggression. The use of steroids is the introduction of testosterone into the body from a source other than the testes. The use of these steroids can increase strength, muscle size, and athletic performance.Steroids are thought to be first used in athletics by the Russian weightlifting teams of the 1950s. Now steroids are used (illegally) from professional athletes to high school football players. We will write a custom essay on Steroids4 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Once introduced into the body by injection or taken orally the steroids enter the bloodstream and travel to every cell in the body. In muscle cells, it causes them to reproduce at an increased rate. After strenuous exercise the muscles naturally break down and duplicate, however when on steroids, the muscles dont break down, they just reproduce. Steroids will also increase recovery time from injures. Another gain from the use of steroids is the increase in red blood cell production allowing for greater endurance. There are many negative side effects from the use of steroids. These side effects can be permanent and quite serious. These side effects differ from males and females. In males acne problems and early hair loss develop. Increased levels of circulating testosterone can act as negative feedback to the pituitary gland, decreasing the production of sperm and natural testosterone. People on steroids often show various behavioral changes as well. Know as roid rage, irritability, increased aggressiveness, nervous tension are the most prominent examples of this. Side effects in women using steroids include deepening of the voice, increased body and facial hair and decreased breast size. The steroids also throw off the hormonal balance in a female throwing off her menstrual cycle. Making it difficult, if not impossible to have a child. These side effects can become permanent in females after only a few months of use. The platelets in the blood will also clump together inside the blood vessels clogging them. Steroids can shatter the heart, liver kidneys, and immune system. Another highly feared side effect is cancer. With the steroids weakening the immune system, cancer cells have more freedom to develop. If the muscles grow too fast, tendons and ligaments can be torn. If steroids are taken in through injection, there is a risk of infection from bacteria, viruses, and even HIV. Steroids have a lot of psychological symptoms as well. They can cause mania, depression, schizophrenia, and paranoia. Steroid users usually become very irritable, aggressive, and violent. Suicide is also a problem of people who have taken steroids for an extended period of time. One of steroids mental side effects can be massive depression in which people sometimes feel that the only way out is to kill themselves. Also, steroid withdrawal can be so devastating that suicide is contemplated. Incredibly aggressive and violent sexual behavior due to steroids has also been recorded. Once someone starts taking steroids for the physical advances it gives them it can become incredibly difficult to stop taking the drugs. Your body becomes so used to the steroid being in the body that it becomes difficult to go one it without it. Luckily there are many treatment centers where someone could get help getting off of drugs, including steroids. .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c , .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .postImageUrl , .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c , .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:hover , .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:visited , .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:active { border:0!important; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:active , .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8677943448d82d61af7cae4148ad985c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Flu Epidemic F 1918 EssayAs serious and devoted and athlete may be, they should not engage in such dangerous smuggling of their bodies. Steroids may deliver quick and extraordinary results, but in the long run, the side effects are much more serious. The chance of being terminally ill is much more regrettable than loosing a tournament. As athletes, we should become wiser about the choices we make today, because these will affect our bodies tomorrow. Bibliography:

French Proofreading and Editing Tips for Key Problems

French Proofreading and Editing Tips for Key Problems Whether youre checking over French homework, proofreading an essay, or verifying a translation, there are certain key problem areas to watch out for. This is not a definitive list by any means, but it indicates areas of confusion and common mistakes caused by differences between French and English and includes links to more detailed explanations and examples. Before you turn anything in, check the following areas of your work. Vocabulary Watch out for differences in meaning and/or spelling. AccentsMissing and incorrect accents are spelling mistakes. ExpressionsDouble-check your idiomatic expressions. False CognatesMany words are similar in spelling but not in meaning. Spelling EquivalentsStudy these differences between English and French spelling. True CognatesThese words are identical in spelling and meaning. Grammar An endless topic, but here are some typical areas of difficulty. AgreementMake sure your adjectives, pronouns, and other words agree. ArticlesDont forget -   these are more common in French. Clauses    * Conjunctions Use the right kind of conjunction.    * Relative Clauses Be careful with relative pronouns.    * Si Clauses Check that these are set up correctly. GenderMake a real effort to use the correct gender. NegationBe sure to use the best negative structure. QuestionsAre you asking them correctly? Verbs    * Conjugations Ensure that each  conjugation matches its subject.    * Modal Verbs These are quite different in French.    * Prepositions Be sure to follow each verb with the right preposition.    * Tense Mood Are your tenses consistent? Do you need the subjunctive? Word OrderAdjectives, adverbs, negation, pronouns cause positioning problems. Mechanics Written conventions can be very different in French and English. Acronyms/AbbreviationsMake sure you write them the French way. CapitalizationCareful - this is much less common in French. ContractionsThese are optional in English, but required in French. Punctuation NumbersFollow French spacing rules and use the correct symbols.

Battle of Hobkirks Hill in the American Revolution

Battle of Hobkirk's Hill in the American Revolution Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Conflict Date: The Battle of Hobkirks Hill was fought April 25, 1781, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders Americans Major General Nathanael Greene1,551 men British Lord Rawdon900 men Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Background: Having won a costly engagement against Major General Nathanael Greenes army at the Battle of Guilford Court House in March 1781, Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis paused to rest his weary men. Though he initially wished to pursue the retreating Americans, his supply situation would not allow for further campaigning in the region. As a result, Cornwallis elected to move towards the coast with the goal of reaching Wilmington, NC. Once there, his men could be re-provisioned by sea. Learning of Cornwallis actions, Greene cautiously followed the British east until April 8. Turning south, he then pressed into South Carolina with the goal of striking at British outposts in the interior and reclaiming area for the American cause. Hampered by a lack of food, Cornwallis let the Americans go and trusted that Lord Francis Rawdon, who commanded around 8,000 men in South Carolina and Georgia, could deal with the threat. Though Rawdon did lead a large force, the bulk of it consisted of Loyalist units which were scattered across the interior in small garrisons. The largest of these forces numbered 900 men and was based at his headquarters in Camden, SC. Crossing the border, Greene detached Lieutenant Colonel Henry Light Horse Harry Lee with orders to unite with Brigaider General Francis Marion for a combined attack on Fort Watson. This combined force succeeded in carrying the post on April 23. As Lee and Marion conducted their operation, Greene sought to strike at the heart of the British outpost line by attacking Camden. Moving quickly, he hoped to catch the garrison by surprise. Arriving near Camden on April 20, Greene was disappointed to find Rawdons men on alert and the towns defenses fully manned. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Greenes Position: Lacking sufficient men to besiege Camden, Green retreated a short distance north and occupied a strong position on Hobkirks Hill, approximately three miles south of the Camden battlefield where Major General Horatio Gates had been defeated the previous year. It was Greenes hope that he could draw Rawdon out of the Camden defenses and defeat him in open battle. As Greene made his preparations, he dispatched Colonel Edward Carrington with most of the armys artillery to intercept a British column that was reportedly moving to reinforce Rawdon. When the enemy did not arrive, Carrington received orders to return to Hobkirks Hill on April 24. The next morning, an American deserter incorrectly informed Rawdon that Greene had no artillery. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Rawdon Attacks: Responding to this information and concerned that Marion and Lee might reinforce Greene, Rawdon began making plans to attack the American army. Seeking the element of surprise, the British troops skirted west bank of Little Pine Tree Creek swamp and moved through wooded terrain to avoid being spotted. Around 10:00 AM, British forces encountered the American picket line. Led by Captain Robert Kirkwood, the American pickets put up stiff resistance and allowed Greene time to form for battle. Deploying his men to meet the threat, Greene placed Lieutenant Colonel Richard Campbells 2nd Virginia Regiment and Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Hawes 1st Virginia Regiment on the American right while Colonel John Gunbys 1st Maryland Regiment and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Fords 2nd Maryland Regiment formed the left. As these forces took position, Greene held the militia in reserve and instructed Lieutenant Colonel William Washington to take his command of 80 dragoons around the British right to attack their rear. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - The American Left Collapses: Moving forward on a narrow front, Rawdon overwhelmed the pickets and forced Kirkwoods men to fall back. Seeing the nature of the British attack, Greene sought to overlap Rawdons flanks with his larger force. To accomplish this, he directed the 2nd Virginia and 2nd Maryland to wheel inward to attack the British flanks while ordering the 1st Virginia and 1st Maryland to advance. Reacting to Greenes orders, Rawdon brought up the Volunteers of Ireland from his reserve to extend his lines. As the two sides neared, Captain William Beatty, commanding the right-most company of the 1st Maryland, fell dead. His loss caused confusion in the ranks and the regiments front began to break. Rather than press on, Gunby halted the regiment with the goal of reforming the line. This decision exposed the flanks of the 2nd Maryland and 1st Virginia. To make the situation on the American left worse, Ford soon fell mortally wounded. Seeing the Maryland troops in disarray, Rawdon pressed his attack and shattered the 1st Maryland. Under pressure and without its commander, the 2nd Maryland fired a volley or two and began falling back. On the American right, Campbells men began to fall apart leaving Hawes troops as the only intact American regiment on the field. Seeing that the battle was lost, Greene directed his remaining men to retreat north and ordered Hawes to cover the withdrawal. Circling around the enemy, Washingtons dragoons approached as the fighting was ending. Joining the battle, his horsemen briefly captured around 200 of Rawdons men before assisting in evacuating the American artillery. Battle of Hobkirks Hill - Aftermath: Departing the field, Greene moved his men north to the old Camden battlefield while Rawdon elected to fall back to his garrison. A bitter defeat for Greene as he had invited battle and been confident of victory, he briefly thought about abandoning his campaign in South Carolina. In the fighting at the Battle of Hobkirks Hill Green lost 19 killed, 113 wounded, 89 captured, and 50 missing while Rawdon sustained 39 killed, 210 wounded, and 12 missing. Over the next few weeks both commanders reassessed the strategic situation. While Greene elected to persevere with his operations, Rawdon saw that many of his outposts, including Camden, were becoming untenable. As a result, he began a systematic withdrawal from the interior which resulted in British troops being concentrated at Charleston and Savannah by August. The following month, Greene fought the Battle of Eutaw Springs which proved the last major engagement of the conflict in the South.

The cost of language switch of Billinguals Essay

The cost of language switch of Billinguals - Essay Example The paper takes a thrust at an evaluation of researches from a largely psychology approach detailing various experimentation outcomes that shed light into the dynamics of the complexities of switching language for the bilinguals. This paper culminates in form of a discussion and suggestions to the educators and for the bodies of knowledge covering the entirety of the spectrum of stakeholders in the language learning and acquisition and domains particularly for bilinguals Bilingual speakers normally have to shift across the two languages in their communication activity and particularly in speech production. The fundamental fact here is that the bilinguals have to separate their two languages and settle for the appropriate lexical alternative; one language for effective communication purposes. Abutalebi J et al 2007) note that in the sense of the foregoing, the process entails that the bilinguals have to be possession of effective neural mechanisms that will suffice to facilitate smooth switching and to avert the highly likely chances of interference or the probable competition between the two language alternatives. This is particularly so considering the fact that the first and second languages both posses protruding neuro-anatomical bases as illuminated by the topical neuro-imaging researches. Bilinguals have to possess feasible lexical selection. This highlights the dynamics that characterise the process in which bilinguals have to go through in the techniques of switching between languages. The switch demands various neural mechanisms and facilities which have been illumined by various researches and propounded models. The broad range of varying challenges or costs that a bilingual incurs in the process of switching between languages demands a deeper exploration. The process evidently involves various psychological transitions and processes which will be explored in this study. The concern and keen interest around the nature of

Secure Software Development Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Secure Software Development - Research Paper Example This research is aimed to assess and analyze some of major areas and aspects regarding â€Å"Secure Software Development†. This research will present some of major reasons for the security based issues in software development process. Here I will also present some of major initiatives that we can formulate to develop software application in a much better way. Computer software applications are more and more experiencing both external and internal penetrations. One key idea intended for this is the reality that software applications are yet through development faults that yet make them to be susceptible. This has taken problems regarding security into intelligent focus for the reason those businesses, comprising administrations, reliant mostly on software application for their every day processes. The situation becomes more insightful in situations where software applications are employed intended for dangerous missions. For this reason most of the building security applications are gaining more and more concentration these days. In this scenario, most of companies all through the world in field of security are paying attention to improve and enhance the security of overall technology based systems. As well, because clients (companies) have practiced unlucky security breaches, there is augmented awareness as well as disturbance intended f or Secure Software Development. Though, in building security applications, many have to be done. Safety methods have to be applied in the entire the software development stages of software engineering model. In this scenario, Devanbu and Stubblebine (2000) outlined that safety concerns have to inform each stage of system development, from system development requirements elicitation to design, execution, testing as well as application deployment. This is essential for the reason that system developer might naively insert defects in the entire phases of the software development procedure. Devanbu, P.

Strategies for Building Effective Relationships Essay Example for Free

Strategies for Building Effective Relationships Essay Building effective relationships requires time and effort. The most effective relations take many forms and are fruitful, effective and satisfying. This only occurs when the parties involved cultivate a level of high trust in their relationships, also called inter-dependence. For this paper we will discuss the basic skills that a leader must possess in order to succeed in building effective relationships. We will also discuss some of the methods used to build effective relationships with superiors and peers. Finally we will look at the role of the leader in different participatory management methods. Leader Skills These features not only facilitate a relationship to mature and deliver exceptional results, but just as importantly, they also preclude a relationship from unravelling under the weight of confusion and external stimuli – a vital aspect in today’s fast-paced and ever-changing world Anyone coming up thru the ranks in the military and in the civilian sector knows that in order for a leader to be successful that they must possess certain leadership skills. Although not all inclusive, these skills will set up a leader to be successful. These skills include: organization and time management, selling skills, resource acquisition and management, technologically savvy, persuasive and negotiating skills, and ethics (Javitch, 2009). Companies are not only looking for leaders who will be able to take over and get the job done, they are looking for leaders with the ability to be organized. Keeping everything running smoothly is part of a good leader. This includes the proper manage ment of time. A good leader creates and follows a schedule, leaving room for unforeseeable changes that occur. Another skill that a leader should possess are selling skills: Wheater it is a product to be sold, a business opportunities or a new processes, a good leader must be able to sell the item or idea both inside and outside the organization. The next skill a leader should possess is resource acquisition and management: In today’s shrinking markets, the ability to locate and effectively use assets goes a long way towards the success of process implementation. This includes knowing how to manage these  processes in order to succeed. Continuing with skills that leaders should possess is knowledge of a leader being technologically savvy. This requires a leader to have the ability to learn and operate current technologies: This skill is of utmost importance, since software and hardware change on a regular basis. A good leader must be able to follow those changes in order to stay relevant in todays’ world of business. The next skill that leaders should possess is the ability to persuade and negotiate. A leader must be able to persuade others to execute a certain action and then negotiate the terms. These skills are important in both the selling of products and convincing other leaders to implement a particular process or program. The last skill but certainly not the least important are ethics. Discerning the proper from the inappropriate at the workplace is getting increasingly tough, as the line separating the two keeps blurring. A leader must possess the moral ground to distinguish between right and wrong and the strength to take the appropriate action no matter the consequences. It takes a great deal of persistence and willpower to create an ethical working place, but the leader knows that it will foster the professional and personal growth in the organization as the years progress. These are just a few of the many skills that a leader must possess. A leader still has to have strength, courage, listening skills, writing skills, and a slew of others skills in order to be well rounded and balanced. While the above skills are not all inclusive, they are a good starting point for leaders. Methods for Effective Work Relation Now that we have addressed some of the skills that a leader must possess we must discuss some of the methods that a leaders can used to build effective relationships with their superiors and peers. Effective work connections create the foundation for success and fulfilment in a job. A leader can sink their career and work associations by their actions and the behaviors they display at work. No matter their education, title, or experience, if a leader cannot play well with others, they will never achieve their goals (Miksen, n.d). It can be that that if there are no effective work relationships then there are no promotions, pay increases, goal accomplishment, and job satisfaction. To build effective work relationships a leader must: bring suggestions to the table, not play the blame game, keep  commitments, share credit, don’t blind-side a coworker or boss, and help other co-workers when they need it (Miksen, n.d). Bringing to the meeting table solutions to a problem earns leaders the respect and admiration from coworkers and bosses. There are some personnel who devote an extravagant sum of time pinpointing problems, yet they offer no way to solve the problems. Anyone can find a problem, the challenging part is finding thoughtful solutions. A leader that brings solutions to the table is sought out by everyone, thus creating relationships with others. The next method to build effective work relations is not playing the blame game. A leader that does so alienates supervisors, and coworkers. Remember that as a leader you need allies at work. While it may be required to ascertain who was involved in a problem, it does not require them to be publicly identified and blamed for the failure. If a leader does this then it will create adversaries. These adversaries will, in turn, help a leader to be unsuccessful. Remember that as a leader one of the skills that you must possess is to be organized and a m anager of time. This skill crosses over to helping build effective work relationships. As a leader you must keep your obligations. In any organization, work is interrelated. A leader that fails to keep deadlines and obligations, affects the performance and output of other employees. If a commitment cannot be kept, as a leader inform all affected employees who need to know and arrange for a new makeup date, making all conceivable efforts to honor the new deadline. Another method to build effective relationships is to share credit for ideas, accomplishments, and contributions. A leader must make the effort, time, and expend the energy, to thank, reward, recognize and identify the assistances of the personnel who aided them succeed. This is a fool-proof tactic to developing effective work associations (Miksen, n.d). One more method to building effective work relationships is to never blind side a coworker, or boss. As a leader always address difficulties, first, with the individuals openly involved. If an employee learns about an issue during a staff gathering or from an email sent to their supervisor, as a leader you have just blindsided the fellow worker. A leader will certainly not construct effective work associations unless their coworkers trust them. The final method to build effective work relationships it to aid fellow workers in find their skills. Remember that each employee in a group has abilities, expertise, and knowledge. A leader  that helps colleague to harness their capabilities, increases the benefit for the organization immensely. Some of the benefits include compliment, praise, and notice contributions. You dont have to be a manager to help develop an encouraging, inspiring atmosphere for employees. Frequently carrying out these actions will cultivate effective work relationships. Partners will value you as a teammate. Superiors will have confidence that you play on the right team. As a leader you will achieve your work objectives, and you may even experience fun, acknowledgement, and personal motivation. It does not get any better than that. Leaders Role in Participatory Management Participatory management is a system in which employees of an organization take an active role in the decision-making process as it relates to the way the business operates. There are numerous methods depending on the level of participatory management a business engages in. Some examples are information management, mentoring and training management, teaching management, recognition management, and finally shared decision-making management (Rampur, 2012). In information management information is shared readily with all employees. This includes earnings and operational budgets, financial projections, as well as information related to long-term strategic planning. This method provides transparency in all business aspects and allows for employee input and suggestions. The next type of participatory management is mentoring and training management. This type of management provides ongoing training, skills development, professional enrichment and mentoring to employees at all levels. This allows all employees to cross-train in different areas of the business, take on new or additional responsibilities, and give their newfound skills a hands-on try under the supervision of a mentor. This method encourages all employees to share knowledge and information with the goal of being a diversely trained, well-rounded workforce. Another type of participatory management is teaching management. This method features a teaching component in which employees are guided on the fundamentals of the decision-making process. Employees receive insight into a particular problem, issue or strategy and the cognitive tools necessary for breaking down the issue into problem-solving components (Rampur, 2012). Using this management style,  employees continually enhance their knowledge of how the company operates and are able to bring ever-improving skills to the workplace. One more form of participatory management includes a forum in which employees are recognized regularly for their achievements and contributions. The reward approach is designed to increase performance, motivate employees and provide positive reinforcement for a job well done. Employees also have the opportunity to see how their contributions directly affect the company in a positive manner. The final method of participatory management is shared decision-making management. In this method employees participate in focus group, complete surveys, participate in brainstorming sessions and often work in self-monitored groups on specific tasks and projects. Management typically provides parameters for employees to work within and to contribute suggestions and ideas, and many also feature a formal review process to ensure every idea is weighed and vetted carefully. As a leader there is purely no healthier way to make people feel valued than to ask them openly, for their advice. A leader can pat people on the back and recognize their efforts but this is not as effective in encouraging people as incorporating them in the decision making process. Employees who play a part in deciding what to do feel a much greater amount of ownership over making it happen. Depending on the organization and the leader will determine which method of participatory management to use if any. Conclusion Leaders are many things to different people. They are the ones making decisions, communication with people, resolving issues. A leader has to have many attributes to be effective. This includes being able to cultivate relations with other people and departments, not to mention being able to lead, develop and enhance coworkers, and the organization. For this paper we have discussed the basic skills that a leader must possess in order to succeed in building effective relationships. We also discussed some of the methods used to build effective relationships with superiors and peers. Finally we looked at the role of the leader in different participatory management methods.

Josef Ks Victory in Death Over the Law in Kafkas The Trial Essay

Josef Ks' Victory in Death Over the Law in Kafka's The Trial Kafka's The Trial In The Trial by Franz Kafka, the Law, its courts, and its people seem to makeup a kind of poorly run, secret society. It appears that the purpose of this secret society is to uphold the Law although using very different methods of enforcement than what most people are used to. The arrest of Josef K. and the manner in which his trial is conducted attests to the unusual workings of this Law. The mysterious execution of Josef K. without any knowledge of a ruling only adds to the complexity of how the law works. Though what K. never does understand is that the accusations against him and the question of his guilt are almost irrelevant to his execution. In reality, K.'s survival depended completely on the Law's success in recruiting K. Which had the law been successful, might have proved to be worse than execution. The final scene though, marks the defeat of the Law even though this victory is in death. It must first be said that the purpose of K.?s recruitment is impossible to be known for sure and of no significance either. K. held a high position in the business world and was respected in these aspects by men of his stature and by those above him. It is possible that because K. was young, intelligent, and successful, he appealed to a certain position the Law needed to fill. Or it could also have been that the Law wished K. to serve a necessary function for the court. The court may have needed K. to be like the defendants he saw in the court?s offices who could all unknowingly assisted the court in its operations. After all, K. is told by Titorelli the painter that a full acquittal has never been heard of and that a more likely result... ...ute him. In this sense, the Law was defeated. Their only objective from the onset of the trial was to exploit K.?s instincts for survival. They had intended for K. to become so concerned with his trial that it would completely overtake his previous lifestyle. He would then soon fall from his place in society into the unbreakable grip of the Law. It first seemed as though K. would easily succumb to the pressures and be a helpless victim of the Law for the rest of his life. But with a rapid reversal in his actions, K. refused to become the victim and intended to live his life completely separated from the Law and his trial. He exercised his freedom over the efforts of the Law to control his life. His determination to live like he had always lived was therefore the direct cause of his death. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kafka, Franz. The Trial. New York: Schocken Books, 1998.

Things Fall Apart: Egwugwu Mask

The Egwugwu were a significant part of not only Umuofia, but the Ibo culture as a whole. They represented the spiritual ancestors of Umuofia. They were similar to the â€Å"justice system† of today. The Egwugwu were seen as wise and ultimately the most respectable members of the clan.They would review a case of the people and agree on a ruling they felt was â€Å"just†. For example, Achebe writes about the Egwugwu judging the case of Uzowulu and his constantly abused wife from page 88 to 94. Even though there were some people who did not agree with the decisions of the Egwugwu, they never dared to speak out against them.Achebe tells the reader the origin of the Egwugwu when writing â€Å"†¦the spirits of the ancestors†¦emerged from the earth. The Egwugwu house†¦faced the forest, away from the crowd, who saw only its back with the many-colored patterns and drawings done by specially chosen women† on page 88. This explains the reader the secrecy and importance of the Egwugwu. They were so sacred that the house they came from couldn’t even face the rest of Umuofia.For my project, I created a mask similar to the one Achebe describes on page 90. This spirit is portrayed to â€Å"[have a] springy walk. He looked terrible with the smoked raffia body, a huge wooden face painted white except for the round hollow eyes and the charred teeth that were as big as man’s fingers.† ( Achebe 90).I have added clay shaped as teeth to my mask to represent the â€Å"charred teeth† (Achebe 90). Additionally, I was unable to find horns as Achebe also tells us the spirit has, so I have added feathers instead. This mask would be used anytime the Egwugwu is out in public. The spirits are unable to remove theses masks because doing so would be â€Å"murder† (Achebe 186). Also, I have added scorings to the mask to show the detailed markings carved into actual tribal masks.

How Far Is Macbeth a Gothic Protagonist

How far is Macbeth a gothic protagonist? The gothic protagonist who is seen as the main character tries to overcome human limitations by making acting as god. Within the novel elements of Gothic is seen which is seen highly in the characters as well as other aspects. Shakespeare’s Macbeth consists of the central protagonist who is Macbeth himself. Thus, Macbeth is seemed as a gothic protagonist because he urges for a gothic goal which is often for more power. A gothic protagonist is known to have sharply contrasting qualities within the character.This is seen in Macbeth as we see the contrast between Good and evil which is a strong source of conflict within Macbeth. Macbeth’s character is deeply divided and this conflict works itself out in depth. The first act of the play offers an increasing insight into the complex interaction of good and evil in Macbeth’s mind. The â€Å"noble†, â€Å"valiant† and â€Å"loyal soldier† of the early scenes is tempted by the visions of future personal glory conjured by the witches and comes increasingly under their influence.The battle between these conflicting elements of Macbeth’s character becomes evident immediately after the first of the witches’ prophecies has come true, when he observes â€Å"this supernatural soliciting Cannot be ill, cannot be good†. The proposition that â€Å"Macbeth is a villain in whom there is little to admire† is an inadequate judgement of Macbeth’s character. Macbeth is not consciously and naturally malevolent, and there are many aspects of his character and his downfall which serve to support this.Macbeth was not only a victim of his own actions, but also of the human condition and the extremely powerful forces of both his wife and fate. Throughout the play the audience undoubtedly experiences feelings of horror at Macbeth, but we are also driven, through an understanding of his character, to admiration and sympathy. T his would not be the case if Macbeth was a totally vile and reprehensible villain, and thus the tragedy of Shakespeare’s Macbeth is clear. Macbeth was certainly no villain to begin with.He is introduced to us as a man of great honour, nobility and strength of morals. He is held in high regard by King Duncan, who addresses him as â€Å"valiant cousin, worthy gentleman†- so highly, in fact, that Macbeth is granted a promotion over Banquo (who seems to be of an extremely worthy and loyal character). But there is a fatal difference between Macbeth and Banquo- Macbeth’s ambition and lust for power. He is a man with an unsurpassable desire to advance himself.He himself identifies this quality while he contemplates an action that he is wholly repulsed by; â€Å"I have no spur To prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting Ambition which o’erleaps itself, And falls on th’ other. † This â€Å"Vaulting Ambition† is what makes Macbeth vulner able and leads him to commit possibly the most vile deed he can imagine, setting him on a path of destruction. There is a temptation to use the fact that he could comprehend the vileness of his deed as a reason as to why we should condemn Macbeth as even worse a villain.Gothic fiction is a form of literature that includes elements of both horror and romance. Most gothic fiction has things that are supernatural, includes feelings like guilt, sin, madness, settings usually in a castle or in dark caves, mystery, suspense, violence, a damsel in distress, and omens or dark curses. The play â€Å"Macbeth† by William Shakespeare is written in gothic literature, this is evident through an examination of the feelings of guilt, sin, madness, the battle between good and evil and omens and curses that take place throughout the play.Omens, curses, prophecies, supernatural beings, these are all things that are very common in gothic literature. Shakespeare uses these things to make the play seem darker and have more mystery to it. There are three witches in â€Å"Macbeth† and they make prophecies that will alter Macbeth’s future. They predict that three things will happen, one of them being â€Å"The power of man for none of woman born/ Shall harm Macbeth,† 4. 1, 91 & 92. Traditionally, characters in gothic fiction have their future predicted by some supernatural being; they use this knowledge to alter their life. Macbeth is no different.One would think that it is impossible to not be born from a woman, so Macbeth uses this to gain confidence that no one will ever be able to kill him. Later on in â€Å"Macbeth†, after the witches make the prophecy of Macbeth not being killed by man born of woman, he goes to battle with Macduff. Since it is said to be that Macbeth cannot be killed by man born of woman, Macbeth is told â€Å"Macduff was from his mother’s womb/ Untimely ripped,† 5. 8, 19 & 20. After being told this Macbet h decided to go to battle with Macduff and got killed, this shows that the prophecy did alter his life in a way he never saw coming.

Juvenile Delinquency and Corrections

Juvenile Delinquency and Corrections Free Online Research Papers Juvenile Delinquency and Corrections (Gender, Race, Ethics, and Class) Youth crime is disproportionately, committed by young men. Feminist theorists and others have examined why this is the case. One suggestion is that ideas of masculinity may make young men more likely to offend. Being tough, powerful, aggressive, daring and competitive may be a way of young men expressing their masculinity. Acting out these ideals may make young men more likely to engage in antisocial and criminal behavior. Alternatively, rather than young men acting as they do because of societal pressure to conform to masculine ideals; young men may actually be naturally more aggressive, daring etc. As well as biological or psychological factors, the way young men are treated by their parents may make them more susceptible to offending. According to a study led by Florida State University criminologist Kevin M. Beaver, adolescent males who possess a certain type of variation in a specific gene are more likely to flock to delinquent peers (Wikipedia, 2008). Strain Theory is associated mainly with the work of Robert Merton. He felt that there are institutionalized paths to success in society. Strain theory holds that crime is caused by the difficulty those in poverty have in achieving socially valued goals by legitimate means. As those with, for instance, poor educational attainment have difficulty achieving wealth and status by securing well paid employment, they are more likely to use criminal means to obtain these goals. Mertons suggests five adaptations to this dilemma: Innovation: individuals who accept socially approved goals, but not necessarily the socially approved means. Retreatism: those who reject socially approved goals and the means for acquiring them. Ritualism: those who buy into a system of socially approved means, but lose sight of the goals. Merton believed that drug users are in this category. Conformity: those who conform to the systems means and goals. Rebellion: people who negate socially approved goals and means by creating a new system of acceptable goals and means. A difficulty with strain theory is that it does not explore why children of low-income families would have poor educational attainment in the first place. More importantly is the fact that much youth crime does not have an economic motivation. Strain theory fails to explain violent crime, the type of youth crime which causes most anxiety to the public (Wikipedia, 2008). For decades psychologists have studied morality, moral development, and how people become troubled. Lawrence Kohlberg, a Harvard psychologist, labeled the moral development of human beings from the early infant years to late adulthood. Hartshorne and May, conducting one of the early studies in the late 1920’s, evaluated the influence of religion, education, and society on young children. The one test used in the early prediction of troubled youth is the Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) assessment. This test helps identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in adolescents. Although MMPI-A test helps provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, it is a very extensive test and takes several hours to complete. With such incidents as the Columbine tragedy, school shootings, and the increasing number of incarcerated youth, people are searching for a way to target these troubled teens before they commit serious crimes to offer them counseling and support. In â€Å"Ethics and Teens: Is It Possible To Detect Troubled Youth† everyday moral dilemmas such as stealing, cheating, and lying are used to challenge the ethics of each subject. Each moral dilemma contains three solutions; each solution is based on either a â€Å"Caring†, â€Å"Judgmental†, or â€Å"Self-Centered† perspective (Alicia McDermott 2008). In 1992, 80% of the juvenile population was white and 15% was black. White juveniles, however, were involved in 65% of the delinquency cases handled by juvenile courts. Black juveniles were involved in 31% of delinquency cases 27%of property offense cases and 40% of person offense cases (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,1992). Work Cited Wikipedia Juvenile delinquency as a male phenomenon, 2008. Retrieved on November 18, 2008 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency Explained gender differences in juvenile delinquency. Wikipedia Strain theory, 2008. Retrieved on November 18, 2008 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency Explained the class differences in juvenile delinquency. Alicia McDermott Ethics and Teens: Is It Possible to Detect Troubled Youth?,2008. Retrieved on November 17, 2008 from: http://ojas.ucok.edu/03/paper/mcdermott.htm Explained how one could detect ethics in teens. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Delinquency Cases in Juvenile Court, 1992.Retrivied on November 17, 2008 from: http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/search/SearchResults.asp?ti=5si=73p=topic Explained the race percentage in juvenile delinquency. Research Papers on Juvenile Delinquency and CorrectionsThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andResearch Process Part OneThree Concepts of PsychodynamicHip-Hop is ArtThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationOpen Architechture a white paper

The 18th Amendment Began the Era of Prohibition

The 18th Amendment Began the Era of Prohibition The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol, which began the era of  Prohibition. Ratified on Jan. 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was repealed by the 21st Amendment on Dec. 5, 1933. In the over 200 years of U.S. Constitutional Law, the 18th Amendment remains the only amendment to ever have been repealed.   The 18th Amendment Key Takeaways The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution banned the manufacture and distribution of alcohol (known as Prohibition), on Jan. 16, 1919.  The major force behind Prohibition was 150 years of pressure by the Temperance Movement, combined with the ideals of the early 20th century Progressive Movement.The result was the destruction of an entire industry, including loss of jobs and tax revenue, and general lawlessness as people openly flaunted the law.  The Great Depression was an instrumental reason for its repeal.  The 21st Amendment repealing the 18th was ratified in December 1933, the only amendment ever to be repealed. Text of the 18th Amendment Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. Proposal of the 18th Amendment   The road to national prohibition was riddled with a plethora of states laws that mirrored a national sentiment for temperance. Of the states that already had bans on manufacturing and distributing alcohol, very few had sweeping successes as a result, but the 18th Amendment sought to remedy this.   On August 1, 1917, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution detailing a version of the above three sections to be presented to states for ratification. The vote passed 65 to 20 with Republicans voting 29 in favor and 8 in opposition while the Democrats voted 36 to 12.   On December 17, 1917, the U.S. House of Representatives voted in favor of a revised resolution 282 to 128, with Republicans voting 137 to 62 and Democrats voting 141 to 64. Additionally, four independents voted for and two against it. The Senate approved this revised version the next day with a vote of 47 to 8 where it then went on to the States for ratification. Ratification of the 18th Amendment The 18th Amendment was ratified on January 16, 1919, in Washington, D.C. with Nebraskas for vote pushing the amendment over the required 36 states needed to approve the bill. Of the 48 states in the U.S. at the time (Hawaii and Alaska became states in the U.S. in 1959), only Connecticut and Rhode Island rejected the amendment, though New Jersey did not ratify it until three years later in 1922.   The National Prohibition Act was written to define the language and execution of the amendment and despite President Woodrow Wilsons attempt to veto the act, Congress and the Senate overrode his veto and set the start date for prohibition in the United States to January 17, 1920, the earliest date allowed by the 18th Amendment.   The Temperance Movement Temperance Parade. Chicago History Museum/Getty Images At the time of its passage, the 18th Amendment was the culmination of well over a century of activity by members of the temperance movement- people who wanted the total abolishment of alcohol. In the mid-19th century in the United States and elsewhere, the rejection of alcohol began as a religious movement, but it never gained traction: The revenue from the alcohol industry was phenomenal even then. As the new century turned, however, so did the focus of the temperance leadership.   Temperance became a platform of the Progressive Movement, a political and cultural movement that was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. The Progressives wanted to clean up slums, end child labor, enforce shorter working hours, improve working conditions for people in factories, and stop excessive drinking. Banning alcohol, they felt, would protect the family, aid personal success, and reduce or eliminate crime and poverty.   The leaders of the movement were in the Anti-Saloon League of America, who, allied with the Womens Christian Temperance Union mobilized the Protestant churches and obtained major funding from businessmen and the corporate elite. Their activities were instrumental in achieving the two-thirds majority needed in both houses to initiate what would become the 18th Amendment.   The Volstead Act   The original wording of the 18th amendment barred the manufacture, sale, transportation, and exportation of intoxicating beverages, but it didnt define what intoxicating meant. Many of the people who supported the 18th amendment believed that the real problem was saloons and that drinking was acceptable in respectable settings.  The 18th amendment didnt prohibit imports (the Webb-Kenyon Act of 1913 did that) but Webb-Kenyon only enforced the imports when it was illegal in the receiving states. At first, people who wanted alcohol could get it semi-legally and safely.   But the Volstead Act, which was passed by Congress and then came into effect on January 16, 1920, defined the intoxicating level at .05 percent alcohol by volume. The utilitarian arm of the temperance movement wanted to ban saloons and control alcohol production: People believed their own drinking was blameless, but it was bad for everyone else and the society at large. The Volstead Act made that untenable: If you wanted alcohol, you now had to get it illegally.   The Volstead Act also created the first Prohibition Unit, in which men and women were hired at the federal level to serve as prohibition agents. Consequences of the 18th Amendment   The result of the combined 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act was economic devastation in the liquor industry. In 1914, there were 318 wineries, in 1927 there were 27. Liquor wholesalers were cut by 96 percent, and the number of legal retailers by 90 percent. Between 1919 and 1929, tax revenue from distilled spirits dropped from $365 million to under $13 million; revenues from fermented liquors went from $117 million to virtually nothing.   Bans on liquor importation and exportation crippled American ocean liners who were competing with other countries. Farmers lost the legal market of their crops to distilleries. Its not that the framers didnt realize that they would be losing the tax revenue they got from the alcohol industry (not to mention job loss and raw material market loss): They simply believed after World War I that prosperity and economic growth would be adequately bolstered by the gains of the Progressive movement, including doing away with alcohol, to overcome any initial costs.   Bootlegging   Marcia Frost One main consequence of the 18th Amendment was the steep  increase in smuggling and bootlegging- massive quantities of alcohol were smuggled out of Canada or made in small stills. There was no funding provided in the 18th Amendment for federal policing or prosecuting drink-related crimes. Although the Volstead Act created the first federal Prohibition Units, it didnt really become effective at the national level until 1927. State courts became clogged with alcohol-related cases.   When voters recognized that even near beer productions by the limping alcohol manufacturers Coors, Miller, and Anheuser Busch were now not legally accessible, tens of millions of people refused to obey the law. Illegal operations to manufacture alcohol and speakeasies to distribute it were rife. Juries would often not convict bootleggers, who were seen as Robin Hood figures. Despite the level of overall criminality, the mass violations by the public created lawlessness and a widespread disrespect for the law.   Rise of the Mafia   The opportunities for making money in the bootlegging business were not lost on organized crime in the United States. As legitimate alcohol businesses closed, the Mafia and other gangs took control of its production and sale. These became sophisticated criminal enterprises that reaped huge profits from the illicit liquor trade.   The Mafia were protected by crooked police and politicians who were bribed to look the other way. The most notorious of the Mafia dons was Chicagos Al Capone, who earned an estimated $60 million annually from his bootlegging and speakeasy operations. Income from bootlegging flowed into the old vices of gambling and prostitution, and the resulting widespread criminality and violence added to the growing demand for repeal. Although there were arrests during the 1920s, the Mafias lock on bootlegging was only successfully broken by repeal. Support for Repeal The growth of support for the repeal of the 18th amendment had everything to do with the promises of the Progressive movement balanced with the devastation of the Great Depression.   But even before the stock market crash in 1929, the Progressive reform movement, which had seemed so idyllic in its plan for a healthier society, lost credibility. The Anti-Saloon League insisted on zero tolerance and aligned itself with distasteful elements such as the Ku Klux Klan. Young people saw progressive reform as a suffocating status quo. Many prominent officials warned about the consequences of lawlessness: Herbert Hoover made it a central plank on his successful bid for the presidency in 1928. A year after the stock market crashed, six million men were out of work; in the first three years after the crash, an average of 100,000 workers were fired every week. The politicians who had argued that progressivism would bring prosperity were now held responsible for the depression.   By the early 1930s, the same corporate and religious elite people who supported the establishment of the 18th Amendment now lobbied for its repeal. One of the first was Standard Oils John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a major financial supporter of the 18th Amendment. On the night before the 1932 Republican convention, Rockefeller said that he now supported repeal of the Amendment, despite being a teetotaler on principle.   Repeal of the 18th Amendment After Rockefeller, many other businessmen signed on, saying that the benefits of prohibition were far outweighed by the costs. There was a growing socialist movement in the country, and people were organizing into unions: The elite businessmen including Pierre Du Pont of Du Pont manufacturing and Alfred P. Sloan Jr. of General Motors were frankly terrified.   The political parties were more cautious: Both were for Resubmission of the 18th amendment to the states and if the popular vote agreed, they would move to repeal it. But they were split on who would receive economic benefits. The Republicans wanted liquor control to lie with the federal government, while the Democrats wanted it returned to the states. In 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr. quietly endorsed repeal: His main promises for the presidency were balanced budgets and fiscal integrity. After he won and the Democrats swept in with him in December 1933, the lame-duck 72nd Congress reconvened and the Senate voted to submit the 21st Amendment to state conventions. The House approved it in February. In March 1933, Roosevelt asked Congress to modify the Volstead Act to allow 3.2 percent near beer and in April it was legal in most of the country. FDR had two cases shipped to the White House. On Dec. 5, 1933, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the 21st Amendment, and the 18th Amendment was repealed.   Sources Blocker Jr., Jack S. Did Prohibition Really Work? Alcohol Prohibition as a Public Health Innovation. American Journal of Public Health 96.2 (2006): 233–43. Print.Bourdreaux, Donald J., and A.C. Pritchard. The Price of Prohibition. Arizona Law Review 36 (1994). Print.Dietler, Michael. Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology 35.1 (2006): 229–49. Print.Levine, Harry Gene. The Birth of American Alcohol Control: Prohibition, the Power Elite, and the Problem of Lawlessness. Contemporary Drug Problems 12 (1985): 63–115. Print.Miron, Jeffrey A., and Jeffrey Zwiebel. Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition. The American Economic Review 81.2 (1991): 242–47. Print.Webb, Holland. Temperance Movements and Prohibition. International Social Science Review 74.1/2 (1999): 61–69. Print.

Continuing influence of original colonies Essay

Continuing influence of original colonies - Essay Example Some of these elements, including the desire for religious freedom, are reflected in contemporary culture and politics. For instance, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry introduces the â€Å"Workplace Religious Freedom Act† every year, never with the support to pass it. Religious freedom in New England seems to be as pressing a need as it was for the Pilgrims and Puritans in the 17th century. Noticeably, Pilgrim and Puritan laws were not created in order to protect religious diversity, as might be the justification for contemporary legislation. But the spirit of the law as protecting, instead of hindering, one’s freedom to one’s own ideas is the same in both cases. The motivation behind the bill is to protect citizens from restricting workplace religious activities1. It accomplishes this by closing loopholes related to â€Å"reasonable accommodations† to employees’ religious needs. Kerry’s legislation is aimed at enforcing religious freedom in t he workplace throughout the entire country; nevertheless, the value of religious freedom seems only to be a value worth actively pursuing in the region where the New England Colonies developed. ... On a more practical level, New England has always relied on the fishing industry for economic viability, due mainly to the fact that fish is an abundant resource for New England industry and to the fact that fishing was established early in its history. In fact, the Colony of Massachusetts Bay began as a fishing venture motivated primarily by profit. Fish, along with timber and crops, were exported to every corner of the world from New England’s famous port towns. From the point of view of any modern New Englander from Gloucester, New Bedford or Plymouth, which are all steeped in American history, fishing has a central place in the legacy of their hometowns. In an opinion piece about fishing regulations2, the writer sides with small fishing operations that have gone out of business because of â€Å"catch shares.† Catch shares refer to fishery management systems that dedicate a secure privilege to harvest a specific area or percentage of a fishery’s total allowabl e catch to individuals, communities or associations. In doing so, he or she is siding with the traditional New England orientation toward the small business structure that values family. Also, the article emphasizes the cuts being made to organizations designed to protect fishing, which shows just how much New England values (and always has valued) its fishing infrastructure. Briefly alluding to the history of the region and its dependence on fishing for its economic and social livelihood, the author is appealing both logically and emotionally to a sense of connection to the past for a prosperous future. The Middle Colonies, made up of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, were considerably more diverse in their origin that the New England Colonies. Although some came to the

Why did good people do bad things (commit white-collar crimes) Essay - 1

Why did good people do bad things (commit white-collar crimes) - Essay Example Jeffrey Skilling was a former Enron Chief Executive officer who was convicted of several counts of conspiracy and actual fraud. Russell Wasendorf was the CEO of the bankrupt Peregrine Financial group. Jeffrey Skilling was convicted of making false financial statements, wire fraud and securities fraud and sentenced to 24 years in prison. He was accused of committing a series of frauds that were geared at misleading investors and business analysts (Friedrichs 325). On his part, Russell Wasendorf admitted to stealing millions from about 13,000 investors who had entrusted him with their investment through his Peregrine Financial group. The judge sentenced him to 50 years jail imprisonment depending on the huge financial loss and sophistication of the fraud. Jeffrey Skilling and Russell Wasendorf were both not born criminals. Jeffrey Smilling was born in Pennsylvani and graduated from West Aurora High school. He attained a Bachelor of Science degree at Southern Methodist University in 1975 and after an MBA from Harvard Business School. Jeffrey was smart in class and in his early career since he was the youngest partner at Mckinsey consulting. There is no evidence that shows that Jeffrey Smilling had negative behaviours in his early childhood. On the other hand, Russell Wasendorf was born in 1948 and never displayed any signs of criminal behaviour in his early childhood. In the case of Jeffery Skilling, it was a case of a good person doing the bad things. According to his previous employment records, he displayed financial discipline and intense management qualities that helped McKinsey attain higher profitability and customer satisfaction. Russell Wasendorf is also a case of a good person doing the wrong thing. This is evidenced by his ability to stand the best direct online trading system that could connect the traders with the CME’s Globex in 1998 (Friedrichs 325). The two fraudulent crimes can be explained by the fraud triangle theory that asserts that

Kitsch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Kitsch - Essay Example This is, in fact, etymologically correct, as the term comes from the German word "kitschen" which refers to the action of collecting rubbish from the street. There are various definitions of kitsch, most of them designating it as a bad art or even as non-art. Jean Baudrillard is quite harsh in his conception of kitsch. He defines it as "an army of trashy objects" (Baudrillard, 109) made out of plaster of Paris or an imitation of it, "a gallery of cheap-junk accessories, folksy knickknacks, souvenirs, lampshades or fake African masks- which proliferate everywhere, especially in resort areas"(110). In his opinion, "to the aesthetics of beauty and originality, kitsch opposes its aesthetics of simulation: it everywhere reproduces objects smaller or larger than life; it imitates materials (in plaster, plastic, etc.); it apes forms or combines them discordantly; it repeats fashion without having been part of the experience of fashion."(111) According to Matei Calinescu, who studies this subject extensively, kitsch is a result of romanticist. The theorist gives two reasons for his opinion: the first refers to the fact that the romantic revolution brought about an almost complete relativization of taste, the second reason is connected to romanticist's promotion of a sentimentalist type and view of art.(237) He says that "the desire to escape from adverse or simply dull reality is perhaps the main reason for the wide appeal of kitsch." (237) So we have two views; the first of them is a harsh criticism of kitsch, the second constitutes itself in an explanation of its appearance. Each point of view is relevant in producing the image of the contemporary kitsch and in identifying its features. A kitsch is, thus, a imitation, something that lacks originality. It is so spread throughout the world and to be found in all cultures as a result of man's need to escape and people's tendency of being sentimental when dealing with art as well as to their tendency of disregarding established values. Kitsch is present in different forms in all the fields of human creation. It is to be seen in art, clothing, home decoration, children's toys, and architecture. It is so ubiquitous that there has even been created a dictionary of kitsch objects. There are kitsch cars, kitsch clocks, kitsch dolls and furniture, kitsch lamps, kitsch tents and there are a multitude of such examples. At the level of interior design, kitsch is produced either by the choice of decoration objects or by the combination of decorative elements. Some interiors, or designer's creations can be shocking at first sight because of the explosion of colors and forms or because of the combination of objects that lack value or originality, with objects with valuable and stylish works of art. It is difficult to decide nowadays where the border between a real kitsch and a trendy interior is. This border seems to have dissolved in world where a plastic imitation of a stylish candelabrum doesn't surprise anyone anymore. Kitsch is a copy without value, or in today's design, a re-taking or a conceptualization of clisheistic lines. The glamorous style is inspired by the Hollywood world where everything is appearance. A neoclassic villa is a home made out of cartoon and gypsum, a poque chair has got the mark of time a day ago, plastic can imitate elaborate forms. A porcelain, the decoration object present in many

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another com pany, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value. From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving , and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners. 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 1988>2002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge. A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged. Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another com pany, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value. From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving , and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners. 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 1988>2002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge. A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged.